Here, we identified a novel HBD with consensus HS-binding motifs near the N-terminal end of X1 and X2 pro-regions. Previous studies reported a putative HS-binding domain (HBD) in the X3 pro-region. Expression vectors encoding full length X2 or X3 variants resulted in production and secretion of biologically active Act A from cultured cells. ![]() Human monocytic-like cells THP1 and U937 expressed X1 and X2 variants after exposure to phorbol ester or granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, while X2 transcripts were present in placenta. Here, we asked whether these variants are expressed by human cells and tissues and what structural features are contained within their pro-regions. The X3 variant is the shortest, lacks N-terminal segments present in X1 and X2, and has been the focus of most past literature. Genomic human databases currently list three activin A (Act A) variants termed X1, X2 and X3. Here, we discuss the applications of mass spectrometry in protein analysis.Īctivins regulate numerous processes including inflammation and are synthesized as precursors consisting of a long N-terminal pro-region and a mature protein. Currently, they are analyzed by a less tedious method: mass spectrometry (MS) for two reasons: 1) because of the complexity of proteins, protein PTMs and PPIs and 2) because MS is the only method that can keep up with such a complex array of features. In the past, all of these proteins were analyzed one at the time. Furthermore, stable and transient interactions between proteins, protein isoforms/proteoforms and PTM-ed proteins (proteinprotein interactions, PPI) adds yet another level of complexity in humans and other organisms. In addition, post-translational modifications (PTMs) in proteins greatly increase the number of gene products or protein isoforms. However, complexity of humans is given by proteins that these genes code for, because one gene can produce many proteins mostly through alternative splicing and tissue-dependent expression of particular proteins. The human genome is sequenced and is comprised of~30,000 genes, making humans just a little bit more complicated than worms or flies. In this review, the application and availability of specific bioinformatics resources and the methods of application involved for SSR discovery have been presented by taking suitable examples from the literature. Several computational programs along with the pipelines have been developed to detect the SSR sequences automatically by using the genomic information from the database. This provides the opportunity to implement the bioinformatics tools to predict and annotate the SSR associated with desired gene of the plants. The next generation sequencing (NGS) techniques generate a huge amount of genomic data which is stored in the public databases in the form of whole genome and EST. As an alternative method, the bioinformatics approaches have been used extensively in the study of these molecular markers, in a economic way. However, the traditional methods for the detection of SSR-based polymorphism cause difficultly. In addition to this, due to their polymorphic nature and distribution throughout the genome, it is considered as an ideal marker in plants. S In the case of plants, the prediction of simple sequence repeats (SSRs) is important for the purpose of gene mapping, biodiversity study and detection of genes with desired characters.
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